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54 BC (search for this): chapter 1
De Legibus. He also continued his activity at the bar on his own behalf and that of his friends, as well as at the request of the powerful leaders. He secured the restoration of his property, Pro Domo Sua (B.C. 57). and defended Sestius, Pro P. Sestio, on a charge of assault (B.C. 56). who had been active in his recall. Toward the end of this period he also defended Milo for the murder of Clodius. B.C. 52. For the circumstances, see pp. 169, 170, below. His defence of Gabinius and Vatinius (B.C. 54), creatures of Pompey and Caesar respectively, was less honorable to him; but he was hardly a free agent in these matters. "I am distressed," he writes to his brother Quintus, "I am distressed that there is no longer any government nor any courts, and that this time of my life, which ought to be brilliant with the prestige of a Senator, is either worn out in the labors of the Forum, or made endurable by literature at home. Of my enemies, some I do not oppose, and others I even defend. I am
46 BC (search for this): chapter 1
reat kindness and respect, and allowed him once more to return to Rome. From this time until the assassination of Caesar in B.C. 44, Cicero remained for the most part in retirement at his Tusculan villa, absorbed in literary pursuits, though in B.C. 46 he delivered his Oration for Marcellus See pp.213 ff., below. (remarkable for its praise of Caesar), and his Defence of Ligarius, See pp. 225 ff., below. and, in the following year, his Defence of King Deiotarus of Galatia, charged with attemptiDe Claris Oratoribus, Orator, and De Partitione Oratoria), and several philosophic works (De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, Academica, Tuscalanae Quaestiones, De Natura Deorum, De Senectute): Meantime his domestic relations were far from happy. In B.C. 46 he had divorced his wife Terentia and married his rich young ward Publilia, from whom, however, he separated in the following year. In B.C. 45 his daughter Tullia died suddenly. Cicero was tenderly attached to her, and it was in part as a distra
50 BC (search for this): chapter 1
His administration was in accord with the principles expressed in his writings,—clean and honest,—a thing worthy of notice in an age of corruption and greed. He had the good fortune to escape the test of a formidable war, but he was successful in overcoming some tribes of plundering mountaineers. For this he was hailed as imperator, according to custom, and he even hoped for the honor of a triumph, the highest conventional distinction which a Roman could obtain. He returned to Rome late in B.C. 50, and was still endeavoring to secure permission to celebrate his triumph These efforts were unsuccessful. when the great Civil War between Caesar and Pompey broke out (B.C. 49). From the beginning of the Civil War to the Murder of Caesar (B.C. 49-44). Cicero was now in a very difficult position. It became necessary for every man of importance to take sides; yet he could not see his way clear to join either party. For some time he vacillated, while both Caesar and Pompey made earnest effor
48 BC (search for this): chapter 1
expected, and he gave up the cause of the Republic for lost. See the passages from Cicero's letters quoted in note to The Pardon of Marcellus, sect. 16 (p. 219, l. 4). On account of illness he was not present at the Battle of Pharsalia (Aug. 9, B.C. 48). After the fate of the contest was decided, he refused to continue the struggle or to follow the adherents of the lost cause to Africa, but returned to Italy (September, B.C. 48), to make terms with the conqueror. He remained at Brundisium untiB.C. 48), to make terms with the conqueror. He remained at Brundisium until Caesar's return from Egypt in September, B.C. 47, when he at once sought an interview. Caesar received him with great kindness and respect, and allowed him once more to return to Rome. From this time until the assassination of Caesar in B.C. 44, Cicero remained for the most part in retirement at his Tusculan villa, absorbed in literary pursuits, though in B.C. 46 he delivered his Oration for Marcellus See pp.213 ff., below. (remarkable for its praise of Caesar), and his Defence of Ligarius,
45 BC (search for this): chapter 1
ing the murder of Caesar. The chief literary fruits of this period of leisure were three works on oratory (De Claris Oratoribus, Orator, and De Partitione Oratoria), and several philosophic works (De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, Academica, Tuscalanae Quaestiones, De Natura Deorum, De Senectute): Meantime his domestic relations were far from happy. In B.C. 46 he had divorced his wife Terentia and married his rich young ward Publilia, from whom, however, he separated in the following year. In B.C. 45 his daughter Tullia died suddenly. Cicero was tenderly attached to her, and it was in part as a distraction from his grief that he wrote some of the works just mentioned. He now seemed to be thoroughly given over to a life of dignified literary retirement, when the murder of Caesar (March 15, B.C. 44) once more plunged the state into a condition of anarchy. From the Murder of Caesar to the Death of Cicero (B.C. 44-43） Though Cicero had no share in the conspiracy against Caesar, his sympat
66 BC (search for this): chapter 1
the domination of this rival in the courts, See p. 303, below. and made Cicero the first advocate of his time. In B.C. 69 Cicero became curule aedile, and in B.C. 67 he was elected praetor with great unanimity. In the latter year began the agitation for the Manilian Law, See p. 66, below. by his advocacy of which Cicero endeared himself to the people and gained the favor of Pompey, whose powerful support was a kind of bulwark against the envious and exclusive nobility. In his praetorship (B.C. 66) he was allotted to the presidency of the Court for Extortion, See p. lxv, N.1 and in this, as in all his public offices, he was honest and unselfish. During all these years he had continued his career as an advocate, engaging in such cases as seemed likely to extend his political influence and advance him most rapidly in the regular succession of curule offices. After his praetorship he refused a province See p. lxi. in order to remain at home and canvass for his consulship. Consulship
63 BC (search for this): chapter 1
lar succession of curule offices. After his praetorship he refused a province See p. lxi. in order to remain at home and canvass for his consulship. Consulship (B.C. 63). For the consulship of B.C. 63 there were six candidates, but of these only Cicero, Catiline, and C. Antonius were prominent. The contest was not merely one of pB.C. 63 there were six candidates, but of these only Cicero, Catiline, and C. Antonius were prominent. The contest was not merely one of personal ambition. The first and second conspiracies of Catiline, as well as his notorious character, could have left no doubt that his aims were treasonable. Antonius had combined with him for mutual support in securing election by illegal means, and was himself a weak and unprincipled man. On the other hand, Cicero was a novus hoer, and he always regarded it as one of the greatest of human achievements. In fact, however, it marked the beginning of his downfall. Consulship to Banishment （B.C. 63-58). The execution of the conspirators without the forms of law was a blunder, and grievously did Cicero answer for it. He had distinctly violated the constitutio
51 BC (search for this): chapter 1
ius led to the appointment of Pompey as consul without colleague See p. 170, below. (practically dictator), in B.C. 52. One of his acts was to pass a law postponing the provincial administration of consuls and praetors until five years after their year of office. The interval was to be filled by such former magistrates as had never held a province. Among these was Cicero, who therefore had to submit to the lot. He drew Cilicia, in which an inroad of the Parthians was expected. About May I, B.C. 51, he set out for this province. His administration was in accord with the principles expressed in his writings,—clean and honest,—a thing worthy of notice in an age of corruption and greed. He had the good fortune to escape the test of a formidable war, but he was successful in overcoming some tribes of plundering mountaineers. For this he was hailed as imperator, according to custom, and he even hoped for the honor of a triumph, the highest conventional distinction which a Roman could obtai
80 BC (search for this): chapter 1
ake sides. To defend Quinctius was a bold undertaking for a young advocate; for the opposing counsel was the great orator Hortensius, backed by powerful influence on behalf of the plaintiff. The case, too, was a somewhat dry one; but Cicero's skill as an advocate is shown by the fact that he raises it above the ordinary business and technical level into a question of universal justice and the rights of common humanity. Next year occurred the trial of Sextus Roscius of Ameria for parricide (B.C. 80), a case growing out of the abuses of Sulla's dictatorship. See pp. 1, 2, below (Introduction to the Oration). Cicero showed his courage by undertaking the defence, and his forensic skill by converting his plea into a powerful attack on the accusers in the regular manner of Roman invective. In B.C. 79 he came into still more daring antagonism with Sulla in the case of a woman of Arretium. The oration has not come down to us, but from its boldness it must have added greatly to the orator's f
75 BC (search for this): chapter 1
to Greece and the East to continue his studies; for at that time such a journey was like "going to Europe" among us. He visited the greatest orators, rhetoricians, and philosophers of the East, especially at Rhodes, then a seat of the highest culture. After an absence of two years, he returned to Rome, with an improved style of oratory, and again engaged in law cases, in which he had as opponents his two great rivals Hortensius and Cotta. From the quaestorship in Sicily to the consulship (B.C. 75-64） In B.C. 76 Cicero began his political career, becoming candidate for the quaestorship (the lowest grade of the cursus honorum), See p. lix. while Cotta was candidate for the consulship and Hortensius for the praetorship. All three were elected, and Cicero's lot See p. lix. assigned him to the province of Sicily under Sextus Peducaeus. It was in this administration that his ability and honesty gained the favor of the Sicilians, which gave him the great opportunity of his life in the imp
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